Music Encyclopedia
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a ballata
In the manner of a ballad.
a battuta
With the beat; in strict time.
a bene placito
At pleasure; meaning that the tempo may be altered, graces or cadenzas added, or that certain specified instruments may be used, or not, at the performer's pleasure.
Related terms: performance style
a cappella
In the manner of singing in a chapel; i.e., without instrumental accompaniment.
Related terms: performance style, dynamics
a due
Intended as a duet; for two voices or instruments; together; two instruments are to play in unison, after divisi or a solo passage for one of the instruments.
Related terms: performance style
a piacere
At pleasure; i.e., the performer need not follow the rhythm strictly.
Related terms: performance style
a prima vista
Playing something at first sight of the sheet music.
a tempo
Return to the main tempo of the piece (after an accelerando or ritardando, etc.); also may be found in combination with other terms such as a tempo giusto (in strict time) or a tempo di menuetto (at the speed of a minuet).
A.
1. (Ger. A; Fr. and It., La). The sixth tone and degree in the typical diatonic scale of C-major.
2. In musical theory, capital A stands for the A-major triad, small a for the a-minor triad.
ab
Off (in organ music).
abbandonandosi, abbandonatamente, con abandono
Yielding wholly to emotion; with a burst of passion; carried away by feeling; making the time subordinate to the expression; without restraint.
Related terms: performance style
abbellimenti
Ornaments introduced to set off a plain melody.
Abendmusik
Evening music.
abgemessen
Measured; in strict time.
Abnehmend
Diminuendo.
Absatz
A section, or musical sentence.
Abschwellen
Decrescendo.
absetzen, abstossen
"Struck off"; detached; staccato.
absolute music
Music born of the delight in combining musical tones, being a product of the musical faculty only. Compare program music.
abwechseln
To alternate. E.g. Mit abwechselnden Manualen, with alternating manuals.
accelerando
Accelerating; gradually increasing tempo.
Related terms: tempo
accent
The stress of one tone over others.
Related terms: performance style, dynamics
accentato
Accented; with emphasis.
Related terms: performance style, dynamics
acciaccatura
A very fast grace note that is "crushed" against the note that follows and takes up no value in the measure.
accidental
A symbol used to raise or lower the pitch of a note from that indicated by the key signature. The figure below illustrates accidentals called sharp, flat, and natural.
Double accidentals raise or lower a note by two semitones (a whole tone).
Related terms: double flat, flat, natural, sharp, double sharp
accompagnato
With the accompaniment following the soloist, who may speed up or slow down at will.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
ad libitum
(commonly ad lib; Latin) – at liberty; i.e., the speed and manner of execution are left to the performer.
Related terms: performance style, dynamics, tempo
adagietto
Rather slow.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
adagio
At ease; slow.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
adagissimo
Very slow.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
affettuoso
Tenderly.
Related terms: performance style, dynamics
affrettando
Hurrying; pressing onward.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
agile
Swiftly.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
agitato
Agitated.
Related terms: performance style
al niente
To nothing (dynamic).
Related terms: performance style, dynamics
al, alla
In the manner of.
alberti bass
A kind of broken chord or arpeggiated accompaniment, where the notes of the chord are presented in the order lowest, highest, middle, highest. This pattern is then repeated. Usually found in the left hand of pieces for keyboard instruments.
alla breve
Two half-note beats to a bar, rather than four quarter-note beats.
alla marcia
In the style of a march.
Related terms: performance style
allargando
Broadening; becoming a little slower.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
allegretto
A little lively; moderately fast.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
allegro
Cheerful or brisk; lively; fast.
Related terms: performance style, tempo
alteration
The modification (raising or lowering) of a note's pitch, established by an accidental.
altissimo
Very high.
alto
High; often refers to a particular range of voice that is higher than a tenor but lower than a soprano.
Related terms: bass, baritone, tenor, counter tenor<,/a>, contralto, mezzo-soprano, soprano
alto clef
C clef setting middle C on the middle line of the staff.
Related terms: clef
am Steg
Playing a bowed string instrument near its bridge (see also sul ponticello).
amabile
Amiable; pleasant.
ambit, ambitus
A range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music; the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing.
ametric
Music that does not employ regular meter, such as chant, some graphically scored works since the 1950s, and non-European folk music such as honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi.
Related terms: meter, duple meter, triple meter, beat, polymeter, time signature
amoroso
Loving.
andante
At a walking pace; at a moderate tempo.
Related terms: tempo
andantino
Slightly faster than andante (but earlier it sometimes used to mean slightly slower than andante).
Related terms: tempo
animato
Animated, lively.
Related terms: performance style
antiphon
A liturgical or other composition consisting of choral responses, sometimes between two choirs; a passage of this nature forming part of another composition.
apaise
Calmed.
appassionato
Passionately.
Related terms: performance style
appoggiatura
A grace note that "leans" on the following note, taking up some of its value in the measure.
Related terms: embellishment, ornament, turn, mordent, prall
arco
Played with the bow, as opposed to pizzicato (plucked), in music for bowed instruments; normally used to cancel a pizzicato direction.
arietta
A short aria.
arioso
In the manner of an aria; melodious.
arpeggio
A chord where the notes are played or sung in succession rather than simultaneously. The word comes from the Italian for "in the manner of the harp."
assai
Very.
assez
Enough, sufficiently; sometimes used in the same sense as assai.
attacca
Attack, or go on; i.e., at the end of a movement, a direction to begin (attack) the next movement immediately, without a gap or pause.
augmented fifth
An interval that spans five scale degrees and consists of eight semitones. The prefix "augmented" identifies it as being one semitone larger than the perfect fifth. Its inversion is the diminished fourth, and its enharmonic equivalent is the minor sixth.
Related terms: interval, augmented interval
augmented fourth
An interval that spans three whole tones. It is enharmonic with a diminished fifth, both of which are also known as a tritone.
Related terms: interval, tritone, diminished fifth
ausdruck
Expression.
ausdrucksvoll
Expressively.
avec
With.
bar
A segment of time defined as a given number of beats of a given duration, demarcated by bar lines.
bar line, barline
A vertical line which separates bars. Traditionally, the first beat of each bar is slightly accented, regardless of its duration. In music employing mixed meters, barlines are instead used to indicate the beginning of rhythmic note groups, but this is subject to wide variation: some composers use dashed barlines, others have placed barlines at different places in the different parts to indicate varied groupings from part to part.
Types of barlines: (a) standard; (b) double 1; (c) double 2; (d) begin repeat; (e) repeat
Related terms: double barline, repeat barline
barbaro
Barbarous.
baritone
The male voice intermediate between the bass and the tenor.
Related terms: bass, counter tenor, tenor, contralto, alto, mezzo-soprano, soprano
baritone clef
C or F clef setting middle C on the upper staff line.
Related terms: clef
baroque
The period of music history dating from approximately 1600 to 1750 BC, beginning after the Renaissance and followed by the Classical music era. Characterized by emotional, flowery music; written in strict form.
Related terms: classical, renaissance, romantic
bass
1. The lowest male voice.
2. An abbreviation for double bass.
Related terms: baritone, tenor, counter tenor, contralto, alto, mezzo-soprano, soprano
bass clef
A clef setting with middle C on the first top ledger line.
Related terms: clef
basso continuo
A part played continuously throughout a piece, providing the harmonic structure of the music. The keyboard (or other chording instrument) player realizes a continuo part by playing, in addition to the indicated bass notes, upper notes to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or improvised in performance.
Related terms: figured bass
battuta col legno
Beaten with the wood; see col legno.
beam
Line connecting a series of notes (shorter than a quarter note). The number of beams determines the note value of the connected notes.
beat
1. The pronounced rhythm of music.
2. One single stroke of a rhythmic accent.
bellicoso
Warlike; aggressive.
ben, bene
Well, as in ben marcato (well-marked).
bewegt
Moved; speeded.
bis
Twice; i.e., repeat the relevant action or passage.
bisbigliando
A special tremolo effect on the harp where a chord or note is rapidly repeated at a low volume. Usually, the effect is achieved by both hands playing adjacent strings set to the same pitches. On sheet music, it is represented by three thick lines connecting the notes to be trilled.
bocca chiusa
With closed mouth.
brace
Symbol at the start of a system connecting staves. Curly braces are used for connecting piano staves, angular brackets for connecting parts in an orchestral or choral score.
brass
A family of blown musical instruments made of brass, all using a cup formed mouth piece.
bravura
Boldness, as in con bravura; boldly.
breath mark
Indication of where to breathe in vocal and wind instrument parts.
breit
Broad.
breve
Note value that is twice as long as a whole note; mainly used in pre-1650 music. The breve appears in several variations, illustrated below.
Related terms: note value
brillante
Brilliantly; with sparkle.
brio
Vigor; usually in con brio.
brioso
Vigorously (same as con brio).
broken chord
A chord in which the notes are not all played at once, but in some more or less consistent sequence. They may follow singly one after the other, or two notes may be immediately followed by another two, for example. See also arpeggio and Alberti bass.
bruscamente
Brusquely.
C clef
Clef symbol indicating the position of the middle C. Used on all note lines.
cadence
A sequence of chords that brings an end to a phrase, either in the middle or the end of a composition.
cadenza
A florid solo, often improvised or (more commonly in modern practice) in improvisatory style and displaying the virtuosity of the soloist. Usually near the end of a movement (but sometimes played between the development and recapitulation sections), embellishing and elaborating on a perfect cadence, sometimes at considerable length.
calando
Growing softer and slower; ritardando along with diminuendo.
Related terms: dynamics
cambiare
Any change, such as to a new instrument.
canon
A musical form where the melody or tune is imitated by individual parts at regular intervals. The individual parts may enter at different measures and pitches. The tune may also be played at different speeds, backwards, or inverted.
cantabile
Singingly; in a singing style.
cantata
Music written for chorus and orchestra; most often religious in nature.
capo
The beginning (of a movement, usually).
Related terms: da capo
capriccio
A quick, improvisational, spirited piece of music.
capriccioso
Capriciously, unpredictable, volatile.
carol
A song or hymn celebrating Christmas.
castrato
Male singer who was castrated to preserve his alto and soprano vocal range.
cavatina
A short and simple melody performed by a soloist that is part of a larger piece.
cedez
Yield; give way.
cent
Logarithmic unit of measurement: 1 cent is 1/1200 of an octave (1/100 of an equally tempered semitone).
cesura, caesura
A complete break in sound.
chamber music
Written for 2 to 10 solo parts featuring one instrument to a part; each part bears the same importance.
chant
Singing texts in a free rhythm in unison; similar to the rhythm of speech.
chiuso
Closed; i.e., muted by hand (for a horn, or similar instrument; see also bocca chiusa)
choir
A group of singers in a chorus.
chorale
A hymn sung by the choir and congregation, often in unison.
chord
Three or more tones sounding simultaneously. In traditional European music the base chord is a triad consisting of 2 thirds. Major (major + minor third) as well as minor (minor + major third) chords may be extended with more thirds. Four-tone seventh chords and five-tone ninth major chords are most often used as dominants. Chords having no third above the lower notes to define their quality as major or minor are called open chords.
Related terms: triad, extended chord
chord progression
A string of chords played in succession.
chorus
A group singing in unison.
chromatic scale
Includes all twelve notes of an octave.
chromaticism
Use of tones extraneous to a diatonic scale.
classical
The period of music history which dates from the mid 1700s to mid 1800s. Characterized by music that was sparer and more emotionally reserved than Romantic and Boroque music.
Related terms: baroque, romantic, renaissance
clavier
The keyboard of a stringed instrument.
clef
In sheet music, a symbol at the beginning of the staff defining the pitch of the notes found in that particular staff.
cluster
A range of simultaneously sounding pitches that may change over time. The set of available pitches to apply usually depends on the acoustic source. Thus, in piano music, a cluster typically consists of a continuous range of the semitones as provided by the piano's fixed set of a chromatic scale. In choral music, each singer of the choir typically may sing an arbitrary pitch within the cluster's range that is not bound to any diatonic, chromatic or other scale. In electronic music, a cluster (theoretically) may even cover a continuous range of pitches.
Clusters can be denoted in the context of ordinary staff notation by engraving simple geometrical shapes that replace ordinary notation of notes. Ordinary notes as musical events specify starting time and duration of pitches; however, the duration of a note is expressed by the shape of the note head rather than by the horizontal graphical extent of the note symbol. In contrast, the shape of a cluster geometrically describes the development of a range of pitches (vertical extent) over time (horizontal extent). Still, the geometrical shape of a cluster covers the area in which any single pitch contained in the cluster would be notated as an ordinary note.
coda
Closing section of a movement.
codetta
A small coda, but usually applied to a passage appended to a section of a movement, not to a whole movement.
col legno
With the wood; i.e., the strings (for example, of a violin) are to be struck with the wood of the bow; also battuta col legno: beaten with the wood.
col pugno
With the fist; i.e., bang the piano with the fist.
col, colla
With the.
colla parte
With the soloist.
colla voce
With the voice.
coloratura
Elaborate ornamentation of a vocal line, or (especially) a soprano voice suited to such elaboration.
colossale
Tremendously.
come prima
Like the first time; as before, typically referring to an earlier tempo.
come sopra
As above; like the previous tempo (usually).
comma
The difference in pitch between a note derived from pure tuning and the same note derived from some other tuning method.
common meter
The time signature 4/4: four beats per measure, each beat a quarter note (a crotchet) in length. 4/4 is often written on the musical staff as 'C'. The symbol is not a C as an abbreviation for common time, but a broken circle. The full circle at one time stood for triple time, 3/4.
comodo
Comfortable; at moderate speed.
compound interval
An interval larger than an octave.
con
With; used in very many musical directions, for example con allegrezza (with liveliness), con amore (with tenderness); (see also col, colla).
con (gran/molto) espressione
With expression.
con affetto
With emotion.
con amore, con amor
With love; tenderly.
con brio
With spirit; with vigor.
con dolore
With sadness.
con effetto
With effect.
con fuoco
With fire, in a fiery manner.
con moto
With motion.
con slancio
With enthusiasm.
con sordino
With the mute.
concert master
The first violin in an orchestra.
concerto
A composition written for a solo instrument. The soloist plays the melody while the orchestra plays the accompaniment.
conductor
One who directs a group of performers. The conductor indicates the tempo, phrasing, dynamics, and style by gestures and facial expressions.
conjunct movement
Progressing melodically by intervals of a second.
Related terms: disjunct movement
consonance
Groups of tones that are harmonious when sounded together as in a chord. Compare dissonance.
contralto
Lowest female singing voice.
Related terms: bass, baritone, tenor, counter tenor, alto, mezzo-soprano, soprano
coperti
Covered; i.e., on a drum, muted with a cloth.
counter tenor
An adult male who sings in an alto, mezzo, or soprano range, through use of falsetto or natural head-voice.
Related terms: bass, baritone, tenor, contralto, alto, mezzo-soprano, soprano
counterpoint
The combination into a single musical fabric of lines or parts which have distinct melodic significance. A frequently used polyphonic technique is imitation, in its strictest form found in the canon needing only one part to be written down while the other parts are performed with a given displacement. Imitation is also the contrapuntal technique used in the fugue.
courante
A piece of music written in triple time. Also an old French dance.
crescendo
Becoming progressively louder. Indicated by a rightwards opening horizontal wedge or the abbreviation “cresc.”
cue-notes
In a separate part, notes belonging to another part with the purpose of hinting when to start playing; usually printed in a smaller type.
custos
A symbol that appears at the end of a staff line that anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line, thereby enhancing readability of a score and helping the player or singer to manage line breaks during performance. Frequently used in music notation until the 16th century.
cut time
Same as the meter 2/2: two half-note (minim) beats per measure. Notated and played like common time (4/4), except with the beat lengths doubled. Indicated by three quarters of a circle with a vertical line through it, which resembles the cent symbol '¢'. This comes from a literal cut of the 'C' symbol of common time. Thus, a quarter note in cut time is only half a beat long, and a measure has only two beats. See also alla breve.
D.S. al coda, dal segno al coda
From the sign to the coda; i.e., return to a place in the music designated by the sign Segno and continue until directed to move to the coda, a separate ending section.
D.S. al fine, dal segno al fine
From the sign to the end; i.e., return to a place in the music designated by the sign (see D.S. al fine) and continue to the end of the piece.
D.S.S. al coda, dal segno al coda
Same as D.S. al coda, but with a double segno.
D.S.S. al fine, dal segno al fine
From the double sign to the end; i.e., return to place in the music designated by the double sign and continue to the end of the piece.
da capo, D.C.
Instruction to repeat from the beginning to the end or to a certain place marked fine.
dal segno, D.S.
Repetition from a place marked by a sign.
deceptive cadence
A chord progression that seems to lead to resolving itself on the final chord, but does not.
deciso
Decisively.
delicatamente, delicato
Delicately.
development
Section of a sonata-allegro form in which the musical themes and melodies introduced in the exposition are developed.
devoto
Religiously.
diatonic scale
A scale consisting of 5 whole tones and 2 semitones, such as the major and natural minor scales.
diminished chord
A chord that contains a diminished interval. A diminished fifth, for example, is a chromatic semitone narrower than the perfect fifth.
Related terms: diminished interval, diminished triad, augmented interval
diminished interval
An interval that has been narrowed by a chromatic semitone.
Related terms: diminished chord, diminished triad, augmented interval
diminished triad
A minor triad whose fifth note has been lowered a chromatic semitone.
Related terms: diminished interval, diminished chord, augmented interval
diminuendo, decrescendo
With gradually decreasing volume.
disjunct movement
Progressing melodically by intervals larger than a major second.
Related terms: conjunct movement
dissonance
Harsh and discordant; a chord that sounds incomplete until it resolves itself on a harmonious chord.
divisi, div.
Divided; i.e., in a part in which several musicians normally play exactly the same notes they are instead to split the playing of the written simultaneous notes among themselves. Most often used for string instruments, since with them another means of execution is often possible. (The return from divisi is marked unisono.)
dolce
Sweetly.
dolcissimo
Very sweetly.
dolente, doloroso
Sorrowfully, plaintively.
dominant
The fifth scale degree.
Related terms: fifth
dominant seventh
A chord consisting of a major triad with a minor seventh; also called the dominant seventh chord.
Related terms: chord, seventh chord
dorian, dorian mode
Due to historical confusion, Dorian Mode can refer to two very different musical modes or diatonic scales.
Greek Dorian mode: In Greek music theory it was based on the Dorian tetrachord: descending, a series of falling intervals of two whole tones followed by a semitone. Applied to a whole octave, the Dorian mode was built upon two Dorian tetrachords separated by a whole tone. This is the same as playing all the white notes of a piano (ascending, as in the modern reckoning) from E to E: E F G A | B C D E. Placing the two tetrachords together, and the single tone at the bottom of the scale produces the Hypodorian mode (below Dorian): A | B C D E | (E) F G A. Placing the two tetrachords together, and the single tone at the top of the scale produces the Hyperdorian mode (above Dorian), which is effectively the same as the Mixolydian mode: B C D E | (E) F G A | B. Confusingly, the Greek Dorian mode is the same as the medieval and modern Phrygian mode.
Related terms: tetrachord, Hypodorian mode, Hyperdorian mode, Phrygian mode
Medieval and modern Dorian mode: A diatonic scale or musical mode which corresponds to the white keys of the piano from "D" to "D". It may be considered an "excerpt" of a major scale played from the pitch a whole tone above the major scale's tonic (in the key of C Major it would be D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D), ie a major scale played from its second scale degree up to its second degree again. The resulting scale is, however, minor (or has a minor "feel" or character) because as the "D" becomes the new tonal centre the minor third between the D and the F make us "hear minor". If we build a chord on the tonic, third and fifth, it is a minor chord. Confusingly, the medieval and modern Dorian mode is the same as the Greek Phrygian mode.
Notable songs in the Dorian mode: "Eleanor Rigby" (The Beatles), "Scarborough Fair," "What Shall We Do With the Drunken Sailor"
dot, augmentation dot
A small dot written after a note to increase its duration by half.
Related terms: dotted note, note value
dotted note
A note with a small dot written after it. The dot adds a half as much again to the basic note's duration.
More than one dot may be added; each dot adds half of the duration added by the previous dot.
Related terms: note value
double bar, double barline
A bar line that can consist of two single barlines drawn close together, separating two sections within a piece, or a barline followed by a thicker barline, indicating the end of a piece or movement.
Related terms: barline, repeat barline
double flat
An accidental that lowers a pitch by two semitones, or a whole tone; denoted by this symbol:
.Related terms: accidental, flat, natural, sharp, double sharp
double sharp
An accidental that raises a pitch by two semitones, or a whole tone; denoted by this symbol:
.Related terms: accidental, double flat, flat, natural, sharp
double stop
The act of playing two notes simultaneously on a melodic percussion instrument or stringed instrument.
Related terms: stop
double trill
A simultaneous trill on two notes, usually in the distance of a third.
Related terms: trill
drone
Monotonous tone such as a humming or buzzing sound. Also a bass note held under a melody. (See also pedal point.)
duet
A piece of music written for two vocalists or instrumentalists.
duple meter
A common meter in which a measure is divided into two beats. Each beat may be divided into two (as in simple duple), or three (as in compound duple).
Common Duple Meters
| Beats divided in two | Beats divided in three | |
| Two beats per measure | simple duple | compound duple |
Related terms: meter, ametric, time signature, beat, triple meter, polymeter
duplet
A tuplet often used in compound meters.
Related terms: tuplet
dynamics
The softness or loudness of a sound or note; also applied to the written or printed musical notation used to indicate dynamics. The tables below outline some common dynamic markings.
Relative Loudness
| Term | Notation | Meaning |
| piano | p | softly; quietly |
| forte | f | strongly; loudly |
| mezzo-piano | mp | moderately quiet |
| mezzo-forte | mf | moderately loud |
| pianissimo | pp | very quietly |
| fortissimo | ff | very loudly |
| pianississimo pianissimento piano pianissimo triple piano molto pianissimo | ppp | as quietly as possible |
| fortississimo fortissimento forte fortissimo triple forte molto fortissimo | fff | as loudly as possible |
| (uncommon) | pppp, ppppp | inestimably softly |
| (uncommon) | ffff,fffff | inestimably loudly |
Sudden Changes
| Term | Notation | Meaning |
| forzando, sforzando | sf, sfz, fz | a strong, sudden accent |
| fp, sfp | a sforzando immediately followed by piano |
Gradual Changes
| Term | Notation | Meaning |
| crescendo | cresc. | getting gradually louder |
| decrescendo diminuendo | dim. decresc.  | getting gradually softer |
| molto crescendo | molto cresc. | for quicker crescendo |
| molto diminuendo | molto dim. | for quicker diminuendo |
| poco a poco crescendo | poco a poco cresc. | crescendo bit by bit |
| poco a poco diminuendo | poco a poco dim. | diminuendo bit by bit |
Related terms: al niente, calando, crescendo, decrescendo, diminuendo, perdendo, perdendosi, morendo, marcato, sotto voice, in rilievo, piano, forte, pianissimo, fortissimo, poco a poco, accent, tempo, performance style
just intonation, rational intonation
Any musical tuning in which the frequencies of notes are related by whole number ratios; that is, by positive rational numbers. Any interval tuned in this way is called a just interval; in other words, the two notes are members of the same harmonic series. Although in theory two notes tuned in the frequency ratio 1024/927 might be said to be justly tuned, in practice only ratios using quite small numbers tend to be called just; more complex ratios are often considered to be rational intonation but not necessarily just intonation. Intervals used are then capable of being more consonant.
Just intonation is usually compared to equal temperament, the tuning system that is by far the most common in the West, which arranges all notes at multiples of the same basic interval. This results in a tuning system where all intervals will sound equally (but mildly) out of tune in any key—all major thirds will have exactly the same character, for example—but the intervals themselves are detuned slightly.
It is possible to tune the familiar diatonic scale or chromatic scale in just intonation, in many ways, all of which make certain chords purely tuned and as consonant and stable as possible, and the other chords not accommodated sound considerably less stable.
The prominent notes of a given scale are tuned so that their frequencies form ratios of relatively small integers. For example, in the key of G major, the ratio of the frequencies of the notes G to D (perfect fifth) is 2/3, while that of G to C (perfect fourth) is 3/4. Three basic intervals can be used to construct any interval involving the prime numbers 2, 3 and 5 (known as 5-limit just intonation).
- s = 16:15 Semitone
- t = 10:9 Minor tone
- T = 9:8 Major tone
which combine to form
- 6:5 = Ts (minor third)
- 5:4 = Tt (major third)
- 4:3 = Tts (perfect fourth)
- 3:2 = TTts (perfect fifth)
- 2:1 = TTTttss (octave)
It gives rise to the following scale in the key of G (this is only one possibility):
| G | A | B | C | D | E | F? | G | |||||||||
| Ratio | 1/1 | 9/8 | 5/4 | 4/3 | 3/2 | 5/3 | 15/8 | 2/1 | ||||||||
| Step | T | t | s | T | t | T | s | |||||||||
The human voice is the most pitch-flexible instrument in common use. Pitch can be varied with no restraints and adjusted in the midst of performance, without needing to retune (as even with the otherwise very flexible string instruments). Although the explicit use of just intonation fell out of favour concurrently with the increasing use of instrumental accompaniment (with its attendant constraints on pitch), most a cappella ensembles naturally tend toward just intonation because of the comfort of its stability. Barbershop quartets are a good example of this.
note value
Indication of the relative duration of a note, using the color or shape of the note head, the presence or absence of a stem, and the presence or absence of flags. A rest indicates a silence of an equivalent duration. A note value does not stand for any absolute duration, but can only be understood in relation to other note values. In the table below, each symbol is exactly twice as long in duration as the symbol below it.
| Note | Rest | North American name | British name |
 |  | longa | longa |
 |  | breve | breve |
 |  | whole note | semibreve |
 |  | half note | minim |
 |  | quarter note | crotchet |
 |  | eighth note | quaver |
 |  | sixteenth note | semiquaver |
 |  | thirty-second note | demisemiquaver |
 |  | sixty-fourth note | hemidemisemiquaver |
 |  | hundred-twenty-eighth note | semihemidemisemiquaver or quasihemidemisemiquaver |
pythagorean comma
When ascending from an initial (low) pitch by a cycle of justly tuned perfect fifths, leapfrogging twelve times, one eventually reaches a pitch approximately seven whole octaves above the starting pitch. If this pitch is then lowered precisely seven octaves, it will be discovered that the resulting pitch is 23.46 cents (a very small amount) higher than the initial pitch. This microtonal interval
is called a Pythagorean comma, or a ditonic comma. Put more succinctly, twelve perfect fifths are not exactly equal to seven perfect octaves, and the Pythagorean comma is the amount of the discrepancy.
Since Western music treats 12 perfect fifths and seven octaves as the same interval, the Pythagorean comma has serious implications for the various tuning schemes of the chromatic scale. Equal temperament, today the most common tuning system used in the West, accomplished this by flattening each fifth by a twelfth of a Pythagorean comma (2 cents), thus giving perfect octaves.
Chinese mathematicians had been aware of the Pythagorean comma as early as 122 BC (its calculation is detalied in the Huainanzi), and circa 50 BC, Ching Fang discovered that if the cycle of perfect fifths were continued beyond 12 all the way to 53, the difference between this 53rd pitch and the starting pitch would be much smaller than the Pythagorean comma, which was later named Mercator's comma. Others intervals of similar size are the syntonic comma and Holdrian comma.
Related terms: equal temperament, syntonic comma, Holdrian comma, just intonation
solfege, solmization
A way of assigning syllables to degrees or steps of the diatonic scale. In order, they are: Do (or Ut), Re, Mi, Fa, So(l), La, Ti (or Si), and Do (for the octave). There are two main types of solfege: moveable Do, in which each syllable corresponds with a scale degree and Do is always the tonic, and fixed Do, in which the syllables correspond to fixed pitches.
There are also other syllables corresponding to notes outside of the major scale. All the solfege syllables are listed in the table below; the syllables in the major scale are shown in bold.
| Scale degree | Syllable | Pronunciation |
| Unison, Octave | Do | dough |
| Augmented unison | Di | dee |
| Minor second | Ra | rah |
| Major second | Re | ray |
| Augmented second | Ri | ree |
| Minor third | Me/Meh/Mé | may |
| Major third | Mi | mee |
| Perfect fourth | Fa | fah |
| Augmented fourth | Fi | fee |
| Diminished fifth | Se | say |
| Perfect fifth | Sol/So | sole/so |
| Augmented fifth | Si | see |
| Minor sixth | Le/Leh | lay |
| Major sixth | La | lah |
| Augmented sixth | Li | lee |
| Minor seventh | Te/Teh | tay |
| Major seventh | Ti * | tee |
| * In Continental Europe and East Asia, si is the seventh major, instead of ti. |
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